Figure 4. Life cycles of Rugiloricus, all animals seen from the ventral view. A, The free-laid egg; B, embryo inside the egg; C, first instar larva; D, last instar larva with ovary (neoteny); E, old larval exuvium with eggs and embryos in different stages; F, neotenous larva; G, postlarva; H1, female; H2, male. In R. carolinensis the larva can develop direct to adult (D–H). In R. cauliculus the postlarva is always involved in the life cycle. Neoteny can be present in both species. (Original drawings by Stine Elle.)